RF Safe

Radiofrequency Fields at 2.45 GHz Reprogram Mitochondria-Lysosome Crosstalk and Modulate the Survival/Death of Macrophages Exposed to LPS and/or the SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein

Int J Mol Sci · 2026 · Mixed · Low evidence

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MixedLow evidencePaper 6866

In RAW 264.7 macrophages, 2.45 GHz RF-EMF at subthermal SARs altered lysosomal and mitochondrial activity, nitrite production, and cell death patterns in the presence of LPS and/or SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. Effects were time- and stimulus-dependent, including…

Study snapshot

PublicationInt J Mol Sci · 2026
Study typein_vitro
Reported directionMixed
Evidence ratingLow

Abstract

The redox mechanisms of RAW 264.7 macrophages exposed to 2.45 GHz RF-EMF at subthermal specific absorption rates and to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and/or the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein (CSP) were investigated. To this end, cellular responses (lysosomal and mitochondrial activity, nitric oxide (NO) production, and cell survival/death) were measured after 6, 24, and 48 h. Selective loss of viability in cells exposed to RF and LPS was observed at 6 h, consistent with early defects in membrane permeability. Lysosomal activity was significantly enhanced in cells treated with RF + LPS. Mitochondrial activity decreased in cells exposed to RF + LPS at 6 h and increased in cells treated with RF + CPS/LPS. Cell viability decreased greatly in cells treated with LPS and CSP + LPS after 24, particularly after 48 h. Nitrite levels peaked in non-irradiated cells treated with RF + LPS and in CSP + LPS at 24 h and decreased in irradiated cells after 48 h. Irradiation affected selection of the death mode: apoptosis decreased or remained unchanged in cells subjected to any of the treatments, while necrosis increased in cells treated with CPS, LPS, or both for 48 h. The combination of RF-EMF and infectious agents reprogrammed the interaction between mitochondria/lysosomes/nitric oxide (NO)/cell death in macrophages in a time- and stimulus-dependent manner.

Machine Enhanced Logic

AI evidence extraction

Structured fields below were generated from the paper’s abstract and metadata to make the evidence easier to inspect. Automated extraction may be incomplete or incorrect; verify important details against the original paper.

Study typein_vitro
Effect directionmixed
PopulationRAW 264.7 macrophages
Sample sizeNot supplied
ExposureRF · 2450 MHz · 6, 24, and 48 h
Evidence strengthLowConfidence: 95% · Peer reviewed: yes

Main findings

In RAW 264.7 macrophages, 2.45 GHz RF-EMF at subthermal SARs altered lysosomal and mitochondrial activity, nitrite production, and cell death patterns in the presence of LPS and/or SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. Effects were time- and stimulus-dependent, including reduced viability and mitochondrial activity in RF + LPS at 6 h, altered nitrite levels, decreased or unchanged apoptosis, and increased necrosis after 48 h in some treated groups.

Outcomes measured

  • lysosomal activity
  • mitochondrial activity
  • nitric oxide production
  • nitrite levels
  • cell viability
  • cell survival/death
  • apoptosis
  • necrosis
  • membrane permeability

Limitations

  • In vitro study
  • Specific absorption rate value not reported in the abstract
  • Findings were time-dependent
  • Effects depended on co-exposure with LPS and/or SARS-CoV-2 spike protein
View raw extracted JSON
{
  "study_type": "in_vitro",
  "exposure": {
    "band": "RF",
    "source": "other",
    "frequency_mhz": 2450,
    "sar_wkg": null,
    "duration": "6, 24, and 48 h"
  },
  "population": "RAW 264.7 macrophages",
  "sample_size": null,
  "outcomes": [
    "lysosomal activity",
    "mitochondrial activity",
    "nitric oxide production",
    "nitrite levels",
    "cell viability",
    "cell survival/death",
    "apoptosis",
    "necrosis",
    "membrane permeability"
  ],
  "main_findings": "In RAW 264.7 macrophages, 2.45 GHz RF-EMF at subthermal SARs altered lysosomal and mitochondrial activity, nitrite production, and cell death patterns in the presence of LPS and/or SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. Effects were time- and stimulus-dependent, including reduced viability and mitochondrial activity in RF + LPS at 6 h, altered nitrite levels, decreased or unchanged apoptosis, and increased necrosis after 48 h in some treated groups.",
  "effect_direction": "mixed",
  "limitations": [
    "In vitro study",
    "Specific absorption rate value not reported in the abstract",
    "Findings were time-dependent",
    "Effects depended on co-exposure with LPS and/or SARS-CoV-2 spike protein"
  ],
  "evidence_strength": "low",
  "confidence": 0.95,
  "peer_reviewed_likely": "yes",
  "keywords": [
    "RF-EMF",
    "2.45 GHz",
    "macrophages",
    "RAW 264.7",
    "LPS",
    "SARS-CoV-2 spike protein",
    "mitochondria",
    "lysosomes",
    "nitric oxide",
    "apoptosis",
    "necrosis",
    "cell viability"
  ],
  "suggested_hubs": []
}
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AI-extracted fields are generated from the abstract and metadata and may be incomplete or incorrect. This material is for informational purposes and is not medical advice.

Identifiers and source

DOI: 10.3390/ijms27093813
PubMed: 42123398

Read the original paper →

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